In this paper, I will be examining the theoretical separation of humanity from the natural world and how urban forestry can be used to reconcile this separation. I will begin by discussing the origin of the theoretical separation and survey both its origin from cultural pessimistic philosophy to its logical end of humans working toward an omnicidal agenda. After this, I will introduce the concept of ecophronesis as a novel approach to environmental virtue ethics centred around the virtues of moral care and eco-temperance. After this, I will argue that ecophronesis can be applied on three separate scales – city planning, individual stewardship opportunities, and policy-making – to support urban forestry initiatives. In adopting ecophronesis at these scales, I will argue that cities will reap both practical and spiritual benefits. For practical benefits, the adoption of ecophronesis to guide urban forestry initiatives will result in more climate-resilient cities. For the spiritual benefits, I will argue restoring individual autonomy as an ecological actor will resolve the spiritual conflict within each of us that results from viewing ourselves as something separate from nature.

The Separation of Humanity from Nature and its Consequences

Pristine Wilderness and its Origins

William Cronon (1996) wrote about the idea that nature is something separate from human activity and argued it is an American-made concept arising from anti-modernist sentiments (1996, 14; 18) This anti-modernist treatment of nature, fostered predominantly by the male bourgeoise who had gained a great deal from the industrial-capitalist economics of their era, presented nature as a remedy to the ailments of modern urban-industrial society; namely, these natural spaces represented areas where man was free from the effeminate qualities projected onto him by modernity (Cronon, 1996, 14). By allowing this view to persist within environmentalist discourse, Cronon (1996) argues that we are faced with a paradox – “if nature dies because we enter it, then the only way to save nature is to kill ourselves” (19). Cronon (1996) believed that the extremity of this position was an reductio ad absurdum proof that this view of nature was untenable (19). As we will see shortly, the notion that man could hold anti-human views in modernity cannot be so easily dismissed. Before discussing these views, it is important to understand how this theoretical separation transformed into an alienation from nature.

Urban Alienation from Nature

To understand how an individual can become alienated from nature, it will be helpful to understand first how they can be alienated from their own labour. In “Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844”, Karl Marx (1959) contrasts the role of labour between man and animal (31-32). Both man and animal rely on nature for the raw materials of their labour; the main difference is that animals labour in response to an immediate for either themselves or their children allowing them to sustain themselves of the natural world whereas humans sell their labour and thus sustain themselves off a wage rather than the products of their labour (Marx, 1959, 31-32). This shift to labour itself as a commodity, rather than the product of one's labour, has two consequences. First, it turns man away from nature and second, it forces the labourer to confront the product of their labour as something alien to them as it arose out of no immediate need or desire of the labourer (Marx, 1959, 29; 31). This distinction between sustaining oneself on a wage rather than nature is critical in seeing how one becomes alienated from nature while living in a city characterized by non-agricultural wage labour.

Steven Vogel (2012) extends Marx’s theory of alienation to offer a more precise account of what it means to be alienated from nature (302). Using Marx’s theory of the products of wage labour manifesting as something alien to the labourer, Vogel argues that products of our collective societal labour – such as the economy, systems of governance, and climate change – appear as universal aspects of society rather than logical ends from our actions (303; 309). Viewing the ends of our aggregative labour as alien and unchangeable truths independent from our efforts constitutes an alienation from society (303; 307). Further, treating the romanticized frontier view of nature as the antidote to a modern wage-labour society sets up a false dichotomy where nature and urbanized centres of production – cities – are mutually exclusive. Under this lens, we can reinterpret Cronon’s paradox to mean that so long as cities stand, nature will not. The false belief that cities are an alien entity forever keeping us separate from nature can lead to several spiritual and ecological ailments all the while failing to recognize that nature and cities can be reconciled. Before discussing reconciliation strategies, I would like to briefly survey some of the spiritual ailments that result from alienation from nature.

Cultural Pessimism and Omnicide

Perhaps it would be beneficial to begin by looking at a well-known example of the threat posed by alienation from nature. In 1978, the eco-terrorist Ted Kaczynski, known also as the Unabomber, began a 17-year campaign of mailing bombs to airlines and universities (Torres, 2018, 134). In his manifesto, “Industrial society and its future”, Kaczynski (1995) laid out his grievances with living in modern industrial society. These grievances focused on the fact that humans were living in conditions fundamentally different than that of the natural world from which we evolved (Kaczynski, 1995, 9). Beyond exacting a heavy toll on the natural world, Kaczynski (1995) contends that life under an industrial society has caused humans to suffer indignities, experience widespread psychological harm, and made life, in general, unfulfilling (1). While it might be tempting to dismiss Kaczynski as a fringe actor of an extreme anti-modernist ideology, extreme interpretations of theories like deep ecology and anarcho-primitivism are enhancing the threat of omnicidal agents (Torres, 2018, 132-133). For example, the Toronto-based Gaia Liberation Front (GLF) asserts that mankind has evolved to be something alien to the natural world (Torres, 2018, 133). In their pursuit of liberating Earth, they advocate for the use of bioengineered viruses to eradicate all humans (Torres, 2018, 132). This mistake, that man rather than the product of his labour is alien, presents a troubling but legitimate threat to the future prospering of humanity.

While the threat of ecologically motivated omnicide is a relatively new concern, anti-modernist sentiments, like those Cronon (1996) addressed in his article, are not. In fact, we can see anti-modernist principles being discussed by Jean-Jacques Rousseau through his contributions to what Joshua Dienstag (2006) calls cultural pessimism. Rather than focusing on ecological concerns, Rousseau took issue with time and believed that the antidote to the burden of time was to withdraw into nature to the highest degree possible with the goal of emulating freedom from time’s passing and thereby fortifying oneself against its deleterious effects (Dienstag, 2006, 51-52). Perhaps this was once possible, but now it is hard to imagine any individual is capable of existing outside societal institutions. Now that we understand the spiritual threat presented by alienation from nature, and how it came to be, we can turn our attention to solutions. Without the option to withdraw from society, we must then consider solutions that can occur within the social structures our collective labour upholds. I propose that the adaption of ecophronesis at a multi-level scale can reinvigorate urban forestry initiatives in cities, heal our ailments resulting from an alienation from nature, and create resilient cities with a better shot of withstanding climate change.

Reconciling Humanity with Nature

Ecophronesis as a Theory of Environmental Virtue Ethics

The theory of ecophronesis was put forth by Xiang (2016) to apply Aristotelian phronesis to ecology (55). Aristotelian phronesis is a practical wisdom about how one should act and can be contrasted with Platonian sophia – prioritized in Arne Naess’ theory of ecosophy – which emphasized theoretical wisdom and what one should believe (Xiang, 2016, 58; Liao & Chan, 2016, 112). Ecophroesis encourages practitioners to rely on practical wisdom and reflection upon one's actions to hone their improvisational skills to be able to intuitively determine the right action in a unique scenario to improve the relationship between humans and nature (Xiang, 2016, 55; 58). Xiang (2016) further states that a central element to acts of improvisation under ecophronesis are the virtues fostered by the practitioner (57). The prioritization of virtues in ecophronesis led Austin (2018) to conclude that a new field of environmental virtue ethics was emerging within ecological discourse (1009). Before discussing how ecophronesis can be applied to urban forestry initiatives to combat social alienation, it is important to understand the general perspective of a virtue ethicist and what virtues have been proposed as relevant to ecophronesis.

Virtue ethics is a moral theory that depends not only on what one does but also their internal character (Bommarito, 2018, 6). Virtue ethicists believe that our actions and outlooks are manifestations of our inner virtues and vices and that fostering the right virtues is necessary to ensure right action (Bommarito, 2018, 175; Austin, 2018, 1012). In their book, Zwicky & Brighthurst (2018) propose six virtues individuals should foster in response to climate change; these virtues are awareness with humility regarding what one knows, courage, self-control, justice, contemplative practice, and compassion (49). Three of these virtues, namely awareness with humility regarding what one knows, self-control, and contemplative practice, are in harmony with the practice of ecophronesis as discussed by Xiang (2016) and Austin (2018). While they align with ecophronesis, they are delivered as a strategy to fortify oneself from the world we are coming to occupy under climate change. In this way, they are reminiscent of Rousseau’s solution to spiritually retreat to fortify oneself against the coming world (Dienstag, 2006, 51-52). Though they promote similar virtues, a teleological comparison between the virtue ethics Zwicky & Brighthurst (2018) propose and ecophronesis shows that they are in opposition to each other. The question then becomes how can similar virtues promote different ends. To answer this, we will hone in on the two primary virtues developed by Bommarito (2018) and Austin (2018).

The two core virtues needed to transform environmental virtue ethics from a theory of resigning from the world to one of engaging with it are moral care and eco-temperance (Bommarito, 2018, 172; Austin, 2018, 1016). Bommarito (2018) argues that moral care itself is the singular virtue being realized when other virtues are being practiced (172). This means that when we exercise a virtue, it is actually the virtue of moral care being exercised in a particular domain (Bommarito, 2018, 172). In an environmental context, we can start to see where ecophronesis and Zwicky & Brighthurst’s (2018) proposals diverge. Ecophronesis is the manifestation of a moral care for the natural world and a belief that we have a rightful place within it whereas Zwicky and Brighthurst’s (2018) theory is a prescription for how to retain dignity in a changing climate. To state the distinction more clearly, ecophronesis involves taking back our individual agency to care for the natural world whereas Zwicky and Brighthurst’s (2018) theory involves surrendering to the inevitable collapse of the natural world due in no small part to human activity.

While the virtue of moral care helps explain the teleological difference between these two theories, it, itself, is too lofty of a virtue to offer direction to anyone wishing to engage with ecophronesis. Instead, we ought to turn our attention to Austin’s (2018) virtue of eco-temperance. In his article, Austin argues that the adoption of eco-temperance, at an individual level, would allow for a redefining of what we expect a good life to be (1016). He notes that the vices driving ecological collapse are largely those of materialism and consumption (Austin, 2018, 1017). Instead, practitioners of ecophronesis should foster the virtue of eco-temperance by taking pleasure in a simpler life which emphasizes the importance of materialistic restraint and accepting one’s place within the natural world rather than as something alien to it (Austin, 2018, 1017). Austin (2018) further notes that doing this would result in a fundamental shift in how humans view autonomy from the western individualistic conception to a more collectivist notion where human flourishing is defined by a rich network of connections to both humans and non-humans alike (1017). Now that we have explored the virtue of eco-temperance as a manifestation of moral care, and how this fosters an engagement with the natural world through the reflective practice of ecophronesis, it is time to turn our attention to how ecophronesis can be applied at three scales to heal social alienation from nature. We will first look at a city planning scale before turning to an individual scale and concluding with a broader policy-oriented scale.

Integrating Ecophronesis into Urban Forestry Initiatives

Applying ecophronesis to city planning involves tailoring ecological strategies to suit the unique needs of a particular city. The efficacy of this approach can be seen in Ian McHarg’s experimental development of The Woodlands, Texas (Yang & Li, 2016, 23). McHarg and his team conducted a robust ecological inventory before designing their approach that included geology, pedology, hydrology, limnology, plant and wildlife ecology, and climatology (Yang & Li, 2016, 24). They found that The Woodlands was on top of an aquifer system that supplied both The Woodlands as well as its neighbour, Houston (Yang & Li, 2016, 24). They developed three main goals for their development plan: preserve land with highly permeable soils to allow for aquifer recharge, preserve forested land, and emphasize natural drainage (Yang & Li, 2016, 24). McHarg’s unique approach allowed The Woodlands to withstand flood events that exceeded the 100- and 500-year levels in 1979 and 1994 with minimal property damage (Yang & Li, 2016, 24). Other benefits include fewer pollutants in runoff water decreased forest fragmentation, higher walkability for pedestrians, and an average surface temperature of 2°C lower than the surrounding area (Yang & Li, 2016, 24). Similarly, in a review of the benefits urban forests offered, Borelli et al. (2018) note that urban forests resulted in lowering ambient temperatures, extending the life of pavement by increasing shaded area thereby reducing emissions required to repave, and reducing the urban heat island effect. Borelli et al. (2018) also note that in areas with urban forests, citizens reported a greater sense of physical and mental health including fewer reports of loneliness and a greater belief in social support within their community (6). While McHarg’s innovative approach demonstrates the efficacy of using ecophronesis to develop in accordance with a project site’s unique environmental conditions and needs, it does not discuss how to correct for poor design in pre-existing cities. For this, we must now turn our attention to how ecophronesis can be used to rejuvenate urban forestry initiatives within cities that overlooked the importance of ecological balance.

In a literature review on urban greening for developed cities, Jim (2012) concludes that there were three general strategies for enhancing urban forests: applying ecological principles, protecting natural assets, and acting on greening opportunities within a city’s negative space (743). For applying ecological principles, Jim argues that cities should alter their development plans to prioritize ecological design by optimizing greenspace geometry and connectivity; this principle is a forward-looking approach similar to the ecophronetic principles involved in McHarg’s development strategy (Jim, 2012, 74-746; Yang & Li, 2016, 22). The third strategy, acting on greening opportunities within a city’s negative space, is the key to reinvigorating urban forestry initiatives in cities. This strategy involves looking at unutilized space within cities and working to fill it with greenery. Some examples Jim (2012) provides are improving roadside tree planting techniques, improving urban soil quality, exploring innovative potential through aspects like planting trees between parking spots, restoring historical in-city rivers, and implementing rooftop gardens (752-755). In a later essay focused on resolving soil constraints limiting urban forestry initiatives, Jim (2019) argues that “stakeholders should work to… connect researchers and practitioners… and communicate effectively [between] practitioners and stakeholders” (49-51). The emphasis Jim (2019) places on connecting researchers and practitioners is an essential component of ecophronesis. The question of who practitioners are in urban forestry initiatives is unclear, though, given cities often have authority over greenspaces, but lack the authority to sufficiently steward them. In the next section, I will argue that the adoption of ecophronesis in urban forestry initiatives has the added benefit of offering individuals the opportunity to become urban forestry practitioners through citizen science stewardship programs.

Implementing Citizen Science Stewardship Programs to Manage Urban Forests

As mentioned, though cities have the authority over urban forestry initiatives on public lands, they often lack the resources to properly steward them. This is the case, for example, in Vancouver, British Columbia, where several of the naturally managed areas were developed without proper management guidelines leading to a decline into poor ecological health (Gray et al., 2020, 20). While this may make it seem as though cities do not care about ecological health, I would argue that the inclusion of greenery within cities signals that there is a moral care for urban ecology that is limited by institutional resources. To solve for this limitation, cities should share the responsibility with their citizens by creating citizen science stewardship programs. This would allow citizens to become urban forestry practitioners with the agency to engage with the natural world within their own city. These programs would help bring together practitioners and researchers, as Jim (2019) suggested, as well as allow individuals to form a richer network of connections with humans and non-humans as they engage with an ecophronesis-oriented urban forestry stewardship program (Austin, 2018, 1017).

In a review of environmental citizen science initiatives, Vohland et al. (2019) argue that the implementation of citizen science programs could harm the scientific community by relying on unpaid labour (4-5). While this is a legitimate concern, so long as citizens are utilizing the ecophronetic principle of self-reflection to ensure their efforts are spiritually rewarding for them, and that they are not being instrumentalized by larger economic forces, it is unlikely we would ever see the eradication of professionals from urban forestry initiatives (Vohland et al., 2019, 5; Xiang, 2016, 55; 58). An additional benefit of bringing together practitioners and researchers is that of education. Requiring technical experts to communicate with a layperson effectively will force experts to accommodate their language such that meaning is effective regardless of one’s formal education and familiarity with technical jargon (Shulman et al., 2020, 14). By dispersing knowledge to a broader audience, experts bestow citizens with a self-perception of agency to engage with nature (Shulman et al., 2020, 12-13; Vohland et al., 3). This would effectively transform citizens from self-described ‘nature lovers’ to agents of nature capable of engaging with the natural world to exercise their virtue of moral care.

Adopting a Seventh-Generation Principle in Decision Making

Now that we have covered the role of ecophronesis for city planners and citizens, it is time to turn our attention to policymakers. Urban forestry initiatives require sustained effort to receive the benefits they offer. In this way, enhancing the state of urban forests is a benefit to be received in the future rather than in immediacy. However, governments do not tend to think sufficiently about how they can serve future constituents and instead pay undue focus on their current constituents (Gardiner, 2006, 402). This inability to properly navigate intergenerational endeavours needs to be overcome as a focus on improving present conditions overlooks how our actions could affect the natural world successive generations will come to inhabit (Gardiner, 2006, 407; Torres, 2017, 165). To overcome the difficulties in navigating intergenerational endeavours, policymakers could adopt a principle similar to that of the seventh-generation principle held by the Iroquois (Constitution of the Iroquois Nations, 1996, 10; Liao & Chan, 2016, 112). This principle states that policymakers should base their decisions on what is best for their population over seven generations (Constitution of the Iroquois Nations, 1996, 10). Further, it states that leaders should temper their judgment against vices like anger and greed and should instead promote virtues such as peace, goodness, and justice (Constitution of the Iroquois Nations, 1996, 10). This call to foster virtues to ensure right action over seven generations embodies the essence of ecophronesis. More than being representative of just ecophronesis, the seventh-generation principle provides a valuable example of the benefits of bringing the voices of Indigenous communities to the table in policy-making decisions. In this way, this strategy could be tailored to enhance reconciliation efforts by creating collaborative relationships with Indigenous communities in given regions. Beyond adopting the Iroquois seventh-generation principle, policymakers should also incorporate Austin’s (2018) virtue of eco-temperance to facilitate a spiritual shift from materialism and greed towards a more virtuous concept of human flourishing in harmony with nature.

Conclusion

In this paper, we have looked at the harms posed from treating humanity as something separate from nature and the historical progression of anti-modernist thought through Rousseau’s culture pessimism, to Marx’s theory of alienated labour, to Kaczynski’s terror campaign, and ending with the omnicidal views represented best by the GLF. I discussed what ecophronesis is and how it marked a fundamental shift in environmental virtue ethics from fortifying oneself against the inevitable harms of ecological disaster to reclaiming one’s agency as an ecological actor who can help or harm the environment. Following this, I argued that ecophronesis should be applied toward urban forestry initiatives in city planning, individual citizen science stewardship programs, and government policymaking processes. In our discussion of urban forestry initiatives, I discussed some of the ecological and human benefits urban forests offered cities, but these benefits are passive. The adoption of ecophronesis as a guiding theory offers us something greater than just passive benefits – it offers a genuine solution to the spiritual conflict humans carry within them when we operate as something separate from nature. In transitioning from an individualistic consumer society towards one promoting balance through the virtue of eco-temperance, we have a chance to reclaim our original position within the natural world. Through ecophronesis, we can finally begin to make our way home.

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